The Doctrinal Debate Over Covenant Theology And Dispensational Theology

The Doctrinal Debate Over Covenant Theology And Dispensational Theology

Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI

Biblical Authority Ministries, May 26, 2026 (Donate)

Many people grow up in churches and may never have heard about these doctrinal positions. And yet, they may not realize that they have been taught one of these theologies from an early age.

The reason this particular debate is so important is because it permeates much of how Bible interpretation is done. In other words, it affects hosts of other doctrines from eschatology, to Law, to the nature of Israel.  

As a point of note of history, most were Covenant Theology in their theological outlook. In the 1800s, the dispensational movement took place and slowly spread beginning with the “Father of Dispensationalism”—John Darby. Though there are some roots to his view he is credited with the movements systemizing it.

So this debate really becomes a central battle that rages over the classical form of Bible interpretation verses the modern form. Let’s evaluate what they are and their differences, then you can check with your local church to see where they stand on this vital debate.

Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

The Unity of Scripture

One of the most foundational differences between Covenant Theology and Dispensational Theology is how each system understands the unity of the Bible. Covenant Theology teaches that Scripture reveals one continuous overarching plan of redemption (i.e., one major covenantal system) centered on Jesus Christ. From Genesis to Revelation, God progressively unfolds His covenant promises through various historical administrations while maintaining one consistent redemptive purpose.

Covenant theologians often teach that salvation has always been by grace through faith, whether before or after Christ’s earthly ministry. Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, and New Testament believers were all saved ultimately through looking forward to Christ in the same way we are saved today by looking back at Christ. Salvation is only through Jesus Christ for all time—whether looking forward or looking back to Jesus and death, burial, and resurrection.

Dispensational Theology, by contrast, divides biblical history into a series of dispensations or stewardships in which God administers His relationship with mankind in different ways. While dispensationalists still affirm salvation by grace, they typically stress discontinuity between periods of redemptive history far more strongly than covenant theologians.

Some suggest this framework tended to fragment the Bible into separate programs rather than seeing Scripture as one organically unified covenantal revelation. In dispensationalism, there is one plan for Israel, a different plan for the church regarding salvation for instance. From his perspective, the Bible presents one unfolding kingdom plan of God culminating in Christ and His kingdom in the future after Jesus returns and sets up an earthly kingdom where he reigns out of Jerusalem.

Israel And The Church

Let’s discuss Israel and the church in more detail as this a major point of difference in these two theologies. A major distinction concerns the relationship between Israel and the Church.

Covenant Theology teaches substantial continuity between Old Testament Israel and the New Testament people of God. In this view, the Church is not a completely separate entity from Israel but the continuation and fulfillment of God’s covenant community. In other words, Christians are grafted into Israel being the spiritual children of Abraham while unbelieving Israelites were pruned off the branch, but can be regrafted when they receive Christ as Savior. Hence, it is all about Christ for salvation.

Gentile believers are grafted into the promises made to Abraham, and Christ fulfills what Israel typologically anticipated. Passages such as Galatians 3 and Romans 4 are used to argue that believers are heirs of Abraham through faith in Christ.

Dispensational Theology traditionally maintains a total distinction between national Israel and the Church. Classical dispensationalists teach that God has two distinct programs: one earthly and national for Israel, and another heavenly and spiritual for the Church. Many dispensationalists believe Old Testament promises to Israel, particularly regarding land, kingdom, and national restoration, must be fulfilled literally and separately from the Church.

The New Testament repeatedly applies Old Testament covenant promises to the Church and presents Christ as the fulfillment of Israel’s mission. Covenant theologians believed believing Jews and Gentiles together form one covenant people in Christ.

Where dispensationalists believe God has two peoples (Israel and the Church) and works with them separately. It is wise to use New Testament passages such as Ephesians 2:11–22, Romans 11, and Galatians 3 should be considered when looking at this dividing wall between Jew and Gentile.

The Role Of The Covenants

For two nearly thousand years, Covenant Theology adherents sees the biblical covenants as the primary framework for understanding Scripture. Theologians commonly speak of the Covenant of Redemption, the Covenant of Works, and the Covenant of Grace as overarching theological categories that explain God’s dealings with man. The historical covenants found throughout Scripture progressively reveal God’s redemptive plan and are united by common promises and purposes centered on Christ. For instances major covenants were unified though each of these:

·       Adamic

·       Noahic

·       Abrahamic

·       Mosaic

·       Davidic

·       New Covenant

There were lesser or specific covenants as well. The covenantal structure provides the theological backbone of Scripture. The covenant concept explains why there is continuity in morality, worship, redemption, and kingdom throughout both Testaments. God’s covenants reveal His faithful and consistent character across history.

Dispensational Theology instead uses dispensations as the chief organizing principle of biblical history. Different eras are often marked by distinct tests, responsibilities, or divine administrations. Darby and his followers typically used these dispensations:

·       Innocency

·       Conscience

·       Noahic

·       Human Government

·       Abrahamic (Promise)

·       Israel (Law)

·       Gentiles

·       Present/Church Dispensation (Church age)

·       Millennial Kingdom

·       Eternal State

The Mosaic Law

Covenant Theology is essentially the continuing of God’s law from the Old Testament into the New Testament unless God changes specific laws for man. Covenant Theology generally distinguishes between the ceremonial, civil, and moral aspects of the Mosaic Law.

Covenant theologians traditionally teach that the ceremonial laws (e.g., sacrificial) pointing forward to Christ were fulfilled in Him, while God’s moral law continues to reflect His holy and unchanging character. The Civil law remains in effect unless God changed certain things in the New Testament.

Dispensational Theology places a discontinuity between the Mosaic covenant and the present Church age. Many dispensationalists teach that believers today are not under the Mosaic Law as a covenantal administration and say that that slate has been wiped away entirely. Dispensationalists say there is a distinction between Israel’s covenant obligations and the New Testament believer’s relationship to grace today.

Many Covenant theologians strongly opposed the idea that God’s moral standards had been set aside! God Himself does not change, His moral requirements likewise remain consistent. In his view, the New Testament does not abolish God’s law but confirms, fulfills, and properly applies it through Christ.

Matthew 5:17–19, where Christ declared that He did not come to destroy the Law but to fulfill it states plainly that it wasn’t abolished but fulfilled and the covenant theologians argue that the Dispensational theologians have essentially agreed the Law was now abolished in Christ. Many Covenant theologians believed dispensationalism often weakened the continuity of biblical morality and ethics by separating the Old and New Testaments too sharply (discontinuity).

 Adherents of Covenant Theology and Dispensational Theology often disagree over how Old Testament laws apply today.

Covenant Theology Perspective

In Covenant Theology, the Mosaic Law is often divided into three categories:

• Moral laws
• Ceremonial laws
• Civil/judicial laws

Covenant theologians generally teach that the ceremonial laws connected to Israel’s sacrificial system, ritual purity, priesthood, and temple worship were fulfilled in Christ and are no longer binding.

The civil laws tied specifically to ancient Israel’s national government are also viewed differently depending on the branch of covenant theology. However, the moral law is seen as permanently due to God’s unchanging nature and character and therefore still morally instructive.

Dispensational Theology Perspective

Dispensational Theology generally teaches a strong distinction between Israel under the Mosaic Covenant and the Church under the New Covenant. Many dispensationalists argue that the Mosaic Law as a covenantal system was specifically given to national Israel and is not directly binding upon Christians today. Thus, the Law of Moses is null and void for Christians in this system.

As a result, dispensationalists often approach laws by asking whether the New Testament repeats or reaffirms the command for the Church age. If a law is not restated in the New Testament, many dispensationalists conclude it is not binding on Christians.

Eschatology (End Times)

Eschatology is another area where major differences emerge. Dispensational Theology is commonly associated with premillennialism, particularly pre-tribulation premillennialism. This system typically teaches a future rapture of the Church, followed by a seven-year tribulation, a restored national Israel, a rebuilt temple, and a literal thousand-year earthly reign of Christ centered in Jerusalem.

Covenant Theology historically has included amillennial, postmillennial, and historic premillennial positions, though it generally rejects the dispensational separation between Israel and the Church in prophecy. In this view, the kingdom of Christ progressively expands throughout history through the preaching of the gospel and the discipling of nations. Christ currently sits on the throne of God at the right hand of the father in His resurrected body. He has been given all authority over heaven and earth. Thus, the covenant theologian reasons that Christ is king over heaven and earth right now. The New Testament consistently shows Christ fulfilling Old Testament expectations concerning His kingship, Temple, priesthood, sacrifice, and kingdom.

Hermeneutics (Interpretation)

The interpretive method used by each system deeply influences all other theological conclusions. Dispensationalists commonly push a literal or plain interpretation of prophecy, especially regarding Israel, the land promises, and the future kingdom. They argue that Old Testament promises should retain their original national meaning unless the text explicitly indicates otherwise.

Covenant theologians say that the New Testament itself provides the authoritative interpretation of Old Testament prophecy. They argue that Christ and the apostles interpret the Old Testament covenantally and Christologically. The New Testament repeatedly expands and fulfills Old Testament promises in ways that transcend merely national or territorial expectations.

The apostles themselves show how Old Testament promises must be understood through Christ. For example, the Temple becomes fulfilled in Christ and His people, sacrifices are fulfilled in Christ’s atonement, and the kingdom expands beyond ethnic Israel to include believers from every nation.

When Was Dispensational Theology Articulated Into Its Modern Form?

The modern system known as Dispensational Theology was first clearly articulated in the early 1830s by John Nelson Darby (1800–1882), a leader and founder of the Plymouth and Exclusive Brethren movement in Britain and Ireland.

Darby developed a highly structured system that divided biblical history into distinct dispensations or administrations in which God dealt with mankind under different stewardships. He is especially known for emphasizing a sharp distinction between Israel and the Church, a future restoration of national Israel, and the idea of a pretribulation rapture.

Although dispensationalists sometimes point to earlier theologians who recognized different eras or administrations in biblical history, most historians agree that the full dispensational system itself did not exist in its modern form prior to Darby. Earlier Christians certainly recognized periods such as pre-Flood, Mosaic, or New Covenant eras, but this is not the same as modern dispensationalism. What made Darby’s system unique was the comprehensive theological structure combining:

• Multiple dispensations
• Israel/Church distinction
• A future earthly kingdom for Israel
• A pretribulation/dispensational rapture (distinct from the traditional understanding of rapture which was the second coming/final judgment)
• A consistently literal prophetic hermeneutic

Darby spread these ideas through extensive preaching tours in Britain, Canada, and the United States during the mid-1800s. His teachings gained major influence among some influential conservative Protestants, especially through Bible conferences and prophecy movements.

One of the greatest influences on the spread of dispensationalism was the Cyrus Ingerson Scofield and his famous Scofield Reference Bible, first published in 1909. Scofield incorporated dispensational notes directly into the biblical text margins, making the system widely accessible to ordinary Christians. Through Scofield, dispensationalism became extremely influential in many Baptist, Bible church, and evangelical circles throughout the 20^th century.

According to many covenant theologians, this historical development is significant because they argue that classic Covenant Theology has much deeper roots in church history. Covenant theologians often point out that the early church fathers, the Reformers, and the major Protestant confessions did not teach modern dispensational distinctives such as a pretribulation rapture or a permanent theological separation between Israel and the Church.

Dispensationalists, however, often respond that theological systems can become more fully developed over time and argue that Darby simply systematized truths already present in Scripture. They also sometimes cite earlier writers who anticipated aspects of dispensational thought, though only partially but without distinct systematic form later developed by Darby.

Syncretism of Dispensational and Covenant Theology

Between classic Covenant Theology and classic Dispensational Theology, several “middle” or blended theological systems developed. These systems often try to preserve strengths from both sides while avoiding what they see as extremes. Here are brief definitions of some of the major hybrid or mediating positions.

New Covenant Theology (NCT)

New Covenant Theology attempts to position itself between Covenant Theology and Dispensational Theology. NCT sometimes takes the dispensational approach to a subject and other times takes a covenant theology approach to other subjects. It just depends on whom you are talking to.

NCT rejects the strict covenantal framework while also rejecting the sharp Israel/Church distinction of traditional dispensationalism.

NCT teaches that Christians are not under the Mosaic Law as a covenantal system but are under the “Law of Christ.” Though some argue that the both the Old and New Testament Law is the law of Christ.

Nevertheless, NCT views the Old Covenant as being fulfilled and now abolished being replaced by the New Covenant established through Christ. Unlike classic Covenant Theology, NCT usually rejects the traditional threefold division of the law (moral, civil, ceremonial). Unlike classic Dispensationalism, it typically sees one unified people of God rather than two permanently distinct peoples.

Progressive Dispensationalism (PD)

Progressive Dispensationalism is a softer and more modified form of traditional dispensationalism that emerged in the late 20^th century.

PD still maintains distinctions between Israel and the Church but has much more continuity than older dispensational systems. Progressive dispensationalists teach that Christ is already reigning spiritually on David’s throne in heaven while awaiting future consummation. This “already/not yet” kingdom emphasis moves closer to covenant theology in some areas.

Many covenant theologians sometimes jokingly refer to this softened version as “Leaky Dispensationalism” because covenantal ideas seem to “leak” into the system.

Leaky Dispensationalism

“Leaky Dispensationalism” is not an official theological system but an informal label often used by critics or observers. It usually refers to dispensationalists who begin adopting covenantal concepts to more or less of a degree such as:

• Greater continuity between Israel and the Church
• Present fulfillment of kingdom promises
• Less rigid literalism in prophecy
• Greater use of typology and Christ-centered interpretation

The term is often applied to Progressive Dispensationalism or to dispensationalists who move away from strict classical distinctions.

Revised Dispensationalism (RD)

Revised Dispensationalism developed as a refinement of classical dispensationalism, especially through theologians like Charles Ryrie. It softened some earlier distinctions while maintaining the core Israel/Church separation and dispensational framework.

Ryrie attempted to make dispensationalism more theologically balanced and biblically defensible while preserving its central distinctives. Many Dispensationalists today may actually be in the style of RD instead of Darby’s version and may not realize it.

Progressive Covenantalism (PC)

Progressive Covenantalism is a newer middle-ground position that differs from both Covenant Theology and Dispensationalism. It  goes more to the progressive unfolding of the biblical covenants centered in Christ.

Unlike Covenant Theology, it often rejects the theological “Covenant of Works” and “Covenant of Grace” formulations. Unlike Dispensationalism, it rejects a permanent Israel/Church distinction. It focuses more on typology, fulfillment in Christ, and biblical theology. It really isn’t as rigorous as the other methods as of yet. 

Conclusion

In all methods, one should always look to the Bible as authoritative. Each method should be judged by Scripture. I suggest starting with your local church to see what and why they hold to one of these positions.

Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

□

Bodie Hodge, Ken Ham's son in law, has been an apologist defending 6-day creation and opposing evolution since 1998. He spent 21 years working at Answers in Genesis as a speaker, writer, and researcher as well as a founding news anchor for Answers News. He was also head of the Oversight Council.  

Bodie launched Biblical Authority Ministries in 2015 as a personal website and it was organized officially in 2025 as a 501(c)(3). He has spoken on multiple continents and hosts of US states in churches, colleges, and universities. He is married with four children.

Mr. Hodge earned a Bachelor and Master of Science degrees from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (SIUC). Then he taught at SIUC for a couple of years as a Visiting Instructor teaching all levels of undergraduate engineering and running a materials lab and a CAD lab. He did research on advanced ceramic materials to develop a new method of production of titanium diboride with a grant from Lockheed Martin. He worked as a Test Engineer for Caterpillar, Inc., prior to entering full-time ministry.

His love of science was coupled with a love of history, philosophy, and theology. For about one year of his life, Bodie was editing and updating a theological, historical, and scientific dictionary/encyclopedia for AI use and training. Mr. Hodge has over 25 years of experience in writing, speaking and researching in these fields.

*Images generated by ChatGPT

 

Memorial Day!

Memorial Day!

Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI

Biblical Authority Ministries, May 25, 2026 (Donate)

And the children of Israel fled before Judah, and God delivered them into their hand. Then Abijah and his people struck them with a great slaughter; so five hundred thousand choice men of Israel fell slain. (2 Chronicles 13:16-17, NKJV)

The Betsy Ross Flag at the founding of the USA

Throughout history, militaries have had units of soldiers sprinkled in death. Sometimes entire armies are put to loss. The Civil War (1860s) between the North and the South in the United States was by far the biggest loss of life for American wars.

In ancient Israel, the North (Israel) and South (Judah) also fought during their years of a “split kingdom”. In one battle, 500,000 warriors fell for just one side (Israel) dwarfing any single battle in the USA. The biggest battle in the American Civil War was Gettysburg, PA where a grand total of about 50,000 casualties were incurred between the North and the South over 3 days.

Stop for a moment and remember the brokenness of the families of these fallen soldiers whether in Ancient Israel or in the United States. That brings me to a special modern holiday in the USA—Memorial Day.

What Is Memorial Day?

Memorial Day is a national holiday in the United States set aside to honor and remember the men and women of the armed forces who died in military service to their country. It’s observed on the last Monday of May each year.

Unlike Veterans Day, which honors all who have served in the military, Memorial Day specifically focuses on those who gave their lives in battle, during war, or while serving in dangerous military duties. It is a solemn day of remembrance, gratitude, and reflection upon the sacrifices made for the freedoms Americans enjoy.

For many Americans, Memorial Day also marks the beginning of summer activities, family gatherings, and community events. Yet at its heart, the day is meant to direct the nation’s attention toward sacrifice, courage, duty, and the cost of liberty. Flags are flown at half-staff until noon, ceremonies are held at cemeteries and memorials, and many pause for the National Moment of Remembrance observed each year at 3:00 p.m.

When And How Did Memorial Day Originate?

Memorial Day originally developed after the American Civil War, when communities across America began decorating the graves of fallen soldiers with flowers and flags. Because of this practice, the holiday was first commonly known as “Decoration Day.” Many towns and cities claim to have held the first observance, but the federal government officially recognizes Waterloo as the birthplace of Memorial Day due to its organized community-wide observance on May 5, 1866.

In 1868, General John A. Logan, leader of a Union veterans organization called the Grand Army of the Republic, called for a national day of remembrance on May 30 to decorate the graves of Civil War soldiers. As a side note, there is a jr. community college in Southern Illinois named for John A. Logan and I’ve actually taken a couple of classes there.

Over time, the observance expanded to honor all American military personnel who died in service. In 1971, Memorial Day officially became a federal holiday observed on the last Monday of May.

Why Is It So Important To Military Families And National Leaders?

For military families, Memorial Day is deeply personal. Behind every fallen soldier is a grieving family: parents who lost children, spouses who lost husbands or wives, and children who grew up without a parent. And military personal lose their military “brothers” and “sisters” in combat. My father was a Marine who lost friends and fellow soldiers in war.

Fallen soldier being honorably laid to rest; Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

The holiday reminds the nation that freedom often comes with a painful cost paid by real people. Families visit gravesites, share stories, display photographs, and preserve the memory of loved ones who never returned home. Schools often bring in military personnel to speak to students and help them think more deeply about Memorial Day.

National leaders view Memorial Day as important because it helps unites the nation around remembrance, patriotism, and gratitude. Presidents, governors, military leaders, and local officials often participate in ceremonies at national cemeteries such as Arlington National Cemetery.

Speeches given on Memorial Day commonly discuss sacrifice, courage, service, as well as the responsibility of citizens to preserve the freedoms for which others died. The day also reminds nations that war carries terrible consequences.

While honoring bravery and heroism, Memorial Day also causes people to step back and reflect on the sorrow and suffering connected to military conflict. It is both a day of honor and a sober reminder of the price of peace. I have no doubts these same thoughts ran through the families and service members of ancient Israel too!

What Are Some Ways Americans Can Remember The Fallen?

Americans remember the fallen in many meaningful ways. One common practice is visiting cemeteries or memorials to place flowers and flags on graves—echoing Decoration Day. Communities often host parades, memorial services, concerts, and public ceremonies that honor military sacrifice. Some people wear patriotic colors or display the American flag at their homes.

Enjoying a Patriotic meeting; Photo by Bodie Hodge

Another meaningful way to honor the fallen is by learning and teaching history. Reading about past wars, listening to veterans’ testimonies, and studying the sacrifices of military personnel helps preserve their memory for future generations. Families may also pray together, observe moments of silence, or support military charities that assist veterans and surviving family members.

Christians may additionally use Memorial Day as a time to thank God for those willing to sacrifice themselves for others. Jesus Christ declared in John 15:13 (NKJV):

“Greater love has no one than this, than to lay down one’s life for his friends.”

While this verse ultimately points to Christ’s own sacrificial death, many recognize a reflection of that principle in those who willingly gave their lives protecting others.

How Did The Bible Reveal How People Honored The Fallen Warriors From Battle?

The Bible provides several examples of people honoring fallen warriors and leaders after battle. In 2 Samuel 1, David mourned the deaths of Saul and Jonathan after they died fighting the Philistines. David composed a lament known as “The Song of the Bow,” publicly grieving their deaths and praising their bravery. Rather than rejoicing over Saul’s fall, David honored the fallen and commanded that the lament be taught to the people of Judah.

The men of Jabesh Gilead also showed honor to Saul and his sons after their deaths in battle (1 Samuel 31:11-13). They courageously retrieved the bodies from enemy territory and then they gave them a respectful burial. Their actions showed loyalty toward their former king.

Another biblical example appears after the death of Abner in 2 Samuel 3. David publicly mourned Abner’s death, fasted, and walked behind the burial procession. The people recognized this as sincere honor toward a fallen military leader. Throughout Scripture, mourning, lamentation, burial, memorial stones, songs, and public remembrance were all ways God’s people honored those who had fallen.

These examples reveal that remembering the dead with dignity, gratitude, and respect isn’t foreign to the biblical worldview but instead flow from it. Scripture consistently portrays honoring the fallen as an act of respect and remembrance.

Conclusion

Memorial Day stands as one of America’s most solemn national observances. It is a day to remember those who sacrificed their lives in military service and to recognize the freedoms purchased through great cost. From its origins after the Civil War to modern ceremonies across the nation, Memorial Day continues to encourage Americans families and their respective losses.

For Christians, Memorial Day can also point toward deeper biblical truths about sacrifice, service, courage, and love for others. Remembering the fallen honors not only their bravery but also the principle that sacrificial love is noble and worthy of remembrance. As Americans gather with family and friends, it is fitting to pause and reflect on those who never returned home so others might live in peace and liberty.

□

Bodie Hodge, Ken Ham's son in law, has been an apologist defending 6-day creation and opposing evolution since 1998. He spent 21 years working at Answers in Genesis as a speaker, writer, and researcher as well as a founding news anchor for Answers News. He was also head of the Oversight Council.  

Bodie launched Biblical Authority Ministries in 2015 as a personal website and it was organized officially in 2025 as a 501(c)(3). He has spoken on multiple continents and hosts of US states in churches, colleges, and universities. He is married with four children.

Mr. Hodge earned a Bachelor and Master of Science degrees from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (SIUC). Then he taught at SIUC for a couple of years as a Visiting Instructor teaching all levels of undergraduate engineering and running a materials lab and a CAD lab. He did research on advanced ceramic materials to develop a new method of production of titanium diboride with a grant from Lockheed Martin. He worked as a Test Engineer for Caterpillar, Inc., prior to entering full-time ministry.

His love of science was coupled with a love of history, philosophy, and theology. For about one year of his life, Bodie was editing and updating a theological, historical, and scientific dictionary/encyclopedia for AI use and training. Mr. Hodge has over 25 years of experience in writing, speaking and researching in these fields.

*Image generated through ChatGPT

 

Problematic Apologetics

Problematic Apologetics

Ken Ham and Bodie Hodge

May 21, 2026

“Problematic apologetics?” What does that term mean? The word apologetics comes from the Greek word apologia. It is usually translated “answer” or “defense” in 1 Peter 3:15 (NKJV):

“But sanctify the Lord God in your hearts, and always be ready to give a defense to everyone who asks you a reason for the hope that is in you, with meekness and fear.”

If Christianity is true, and the Bible is the infallible, inspired Word of God, Christians should be able to defend their faith when asked skeptical questions. This doesn’t mean that Christians must have all the answers—but from a big picture perspective, they should be able to give a reasoned argument to counter attacks on the Christian faith.

Image in original publication

Unfortunately, we often see two major problems in Christian apologetics:

1. Most Christians have not been taught practical, basic apologetics, so they don’t know how to defend the Christian faith when it is challenged.

2. Some Christians use incorrect or problematic arguments in their response. Bad arguments then become a stumbling block once the hearer sees the flaws.

Problematic apologetics comes in different forms, such as promoting urban legends or taking quotations out of context. We hope to deal with some of these in coming issues. This article deals with one problem, which we call “eisegesis problematic apologetics.”

Here is an illustration. Consider a person making claims about how to interpret some scientific evidence and then quoted a Bible verse to justify his argument. But when the verse was checked in context, it did not support the claim. This is called eisegesis (a big word for “reading into the text”).

Instead of letting God’s Word speak to us through the style, grammar, and context of the passage (called exegesis), people try to force their own ideas into the Bible to justify their beliefs. Cults are masters at eisegesis, but it’s also a danger for Christians. In fact, every time a Christian defends A careful handling of the evidence…and text compromise ideas about earth history and evolution, such as the gap theory, theistic evolution, and progressive creation, they are imposing their own ideas on Scripture.

Then they claim that Scripture teaches their position. Such “eisegesis problematic apologetics” ultimately undermines the authority of Scripture and causes unbelievers to stumble. Let’s consider just three examples to see whether they slip into eisegesis problematic apologetics.

Shroud Of Turin

Is It Authentic? An amazing cloth shroud, about 14.3 feet (4 m) long and 3.7 feet (1 m) wide, first appeared in 1357 in France and is now stored in Turin, Italy. The cloth has a realistic imprint that looks like a man’s face.

According to tradition, the shroud was miraculously formed when it covered Jesus’s body in the tomb. Some people quote Matthew 27:59, Mark 15:46, and Luke 23:53 to justify the possibility of this miracle. These verses seem to indicate that a single cloth was used to wrap Jesus when He was taken off the cross. But was this same cloth wrapped around Jesus’s body when it was placed in the tomb?

After the crucifixion, Jesus’s body would have been bloody from Pilate’s whipping (Matthew 27:26), the crown of thorns (Matthew 27:29), and the nails driven into His hands and feet (Acts 2:23). More blood flowed from the spear wound in His side (John 19:34). So this cloth would have absorbed a lot of blood.

Now did this cloth remain on Jesus’s body as it was carried to the grave? From a cursory glance at the accounts in Matthew, Mark, and Luke, you might think so. However, John reveals more details (John 19:38–40). Joseph of Arimathea took the body prior to its placement in the grave.

Shroud of Turin; Public Domain

Later Nicodemus joined him, applying about 75 pounds of spices and wrapping the body in several strips of linen. To apply the spices, the caretakers must have removed the bloody linen covering Christ at the cross. We have no reason to assume that they reused this single cloth. Instead, we would expect them to follow Jewish customs of cleanliness.

Also, no Gospel author mentions a second single-cloth linen around Jesus’s body—only a small cloth wrapped around Jesus’s face and several other linen strips around the rest of his body (John 20:7). Jewish burial customs usually involved strips of linen and a burial cloth around the head. In fact, John indicates Lazarus was given the same kind of burial (John 11:43–44).

At Jesus’s resurrection, both John and Luke mention the strips of linen and the cloth on His face (Luke 24:12; John 20:3–7). They mention nothing else. We have no reason to assume any other cloths were present in the tomb.

To do so requires us to impose our ideas on the Bible, contrary to reasonable inferences, which is not the way to “rightly divide the word of truth” (2 Timothy 2:15). The Bible, read carefully in context, rules out the Shroud of Turin as Jesus’s burial cloth.

Days Of Peleg

Continental Breakup? When looking at the surface of the earth, we find evidence that continental plates have moved great distances and are still moving (albeit slowly) today. If such major geologic change occurred in the past, wouldn’t it be recorded in the Bible?

Concerned about these scientific findings, Christians sometimes claim that the continents split apart during the days of Peleg, soon after the Flood.

They usually cite Genesis 10:25, which says “the earth was divided” in the days of Peleg. If you look carefully at the context, however, you see that this verse appears in the middle of a detailed account of the division of languages, when people were divided up and spread over the earth.

In fact, the Hebrew word translated “earth” in Genesis 10:25 is the same word used in Genesis 10:32 to describe the nations being divided. The same word appears again in 11:1, which says the whole “earth” spoke the same language. In each context, the word refers to the people living on the land, not the land itself.

Map by Bodie Hodge

Genesis 8:3–4 raises another problem. The Ark ran aground in the “mountains of Ararat” on day 150 of the Flood. These mountains in the region called Ararat appear to have been caused by the collision of the Eurasian plate, Arabian plate, and African plate.

If the mountains were formed by continental plates moving in the days of Peleg, then the region of Ararat couldn’t have existed when the Ark ran aground! It makes more sense to believe that these continental shifts occurred catastrophically during the Flood, prior to day 150.

Another problem is that a continental breakup at the time of Peleg would have resulted in a global catastrophe similar to Noah’s Flood, with devastating earthquakes, earth movements, and tsunamis wiping out all life on the land. The context of Genesis 10:25 is the division of nations. The context rules out the idea that the continents broke up at the time of Peleg.

Mt. Ararat

Have Remains of the Ark Been Found? If Noah’s Ark really landed on Ararat, shouldn’t it have been found? Many expeditions have attempted to locate the Ark on modern Mt. Ara- rat, and some people claim they have found remains. But is it really necessary—or likely—to find anything?

So far, no hard evidence has come to light, and if you look closely at the biblical text, it doesn’t even say that the Ark landed on Mt. Ararat.[1] The Ark landed on “the mountains of Ararat” (Genesis 8:3–4), which is a much larger range than just the one mountain known today as Mt. Ararat. The argument for Mt. Ararat as the Ark’s landing place is based on assumptions

about geology. Genesis 8:5 (NKJV) says, 

“And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month. In the tenth month, on the first day of the month, the tops of the mountains were seen.” 

Since modern Ararat is much larger than other mountains in the area, some Christians believe the Ark must have landed there.

However, they are assuming that modern mountains had reached their current height during the Flood, which is extremely unlikely. Mountains were still rising and falling long after the Flood, even as they are doing more slowly today.

You can see the debris flow from the volcanoes sitting on top of the rest of the Mountains of Ararat in this satellite image

In fact, Mt. Ararat is a very large volcano, which sits on top of other rock layers laid down during the Flood, so it was apparently formed at the end of the Flood. Since the volcano has continued to be active, up until 1840, we know the mountain has continued to change since the Flood.

Rushing to accept evidence of Ark remains, when there is no hard evidence, is not good  apologetics. In fact, it is probable that the Ark has been destroyed over the course of about 4,300 years (by natural or human agents), perhaps destroyed by the same violent post-Flood volcanic eruptions that built modern Mt. Ararat!

Caution And Hesitation In All Areas

The Shroud of Turin is the burial cloth of Jesus and proves His unique death.“ The earth was divided” proves that plate tectonics is recorded in the Bible. The discovery of the Ark proves that the Bible’s Flood account is true.

Such claims have been used to “defend” the faith and supposedly uphold Scripture—but in doing so, they have actually undermined biblical authority. Each lacks significant support from the Bible and other evidence. When discussing such topics, we should always proceed with caution and hesitation, understanding not only the limitations of evidence but also what the

Bible states clearly in context. The Bible is the most defensible historical document of antiquity. So, we don’t need to confuse our friends and loved ones with problematic apologetics. Instead, let’s each work hard to use the best arguments that honor our Lord and “rightly divide” His Word of truth.

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Originally at Answers in Genesis; Edited; Republished by permission. First published in Answers Magazine, April-June 2009

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[1] For a refutation of popular claims that Noah’s Ark was found near Mt. Ararat, see Andrew Snelling’s “Amazing ‘Ark’ Exposé,” Creation (Sept.–Nov. 1992), pp. 26–38.

Doctrine Of Missiology (Missions And Evangelism)

Doctrine Of Missiology (Missions And Evangelism)

Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI

Biblical Authority Ministries, May 19, 2026 (Donate)

Perhaps the greatest moment in our respective lives is when Christ saved us! Knowing that we will no longer suffer the everlasting wrath of God for our sins and an unbearable punishment for eternity.

Those who are unsaved, don’t realize what they are missing! But as Christians, we want to share the good news of Jesus Christ. We want others to receive Jesus Christ and have eternal life not eternal punishment. This is why it is so important to take the good news of Jesus Christ and His death, burial and resurrection to the world. Romans 10:15 says,

And how shall they preach unless they are sent? As it is written: “How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the gospel of peace, Who bring glad tidings of good things!” (NKJV)

Missionaries preparing to go; Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

Why Is Missions So Important?

Missiology is the study and practice of Christian missions and evangelism. From a biblical perspective, missions are important because God has revealed Himself to mankind and has commanded believers to proclaim the gospel to the nations. After Christ’s resurrection, He gave what is commonly called The Great Commission:

“Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matthew 28:19, NKJV).

The purpose of missions is not merely cultural influence, aid, or social reform (based on biblical morality), though Christians often help people physically. The central purpose is the glory of God through the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ so that sinners may repent and believe.

The Bible says that all people are sinners in need of salvation through Christ alone (Romans 3:23; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Therefore, missions is an act of obedience. It is also an act of love and compassion toward the lost—because we were all lost at one stage and needed salvation.

When someone takes their last breath, they no longer have the opportunity to be saved. The Bible says that man dies once, then faces judgment (Hebrews 9:27). The early church understood this urgency. Jesus told His disciples,

“You shall be witnesses to Me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8, NKJV).

By the power of the Holy Spirit, Christianity spread rapidly because believers proclaimed Christ despite persecution, imprisonment, hardship, and even death.

Early Christians praying in Jerusalem before evangelizing  in the mid-first century; Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

What Is Missions?

Missions is the organized effort of Christians to spread the gospel and establish disciples, churches, and biblical teaching among people groups and nations. Missions may occur locally, nationally, or internationally, but it generally done by taking the gospel and biblical truth to places where Christ is less known.

Biblically, missions include preaching, teaching, discipling, translating Scripture, planting churches, training leaders, and helping believers grow in sound doctrine. Missionaries hope to proclaim the truth of God’s Word faithfully while calling people to repentance and faith in Christ. Paul explained the missionary burden in Romans 10:14-15:

“How then shall they call on Him in whom they have not believed? And how shall they believe in Him of whom they have not heard? ... And how shall they preach unless they are sent?” (NKJV).

Missions should stand firm on the authority of Scripture while proclaiming the gospel. Then the next step is training in discipleship and learning how to defend of biblical truth against false teaching, compromise and all other opposition through apologetics (defense of the Faith).

What Is Evangelism?

Evangelism is the proclamation of the “good news” (gospel) of Jesus Christ. The word comes from the Greek term euangelion, meaning “good news” or “glad tidings.” Evangelism specifically deals with sharing the message of salvation with unbelievers. Consider verses from the Genesis-Romans Road (NKJV):

·       Genesis 1:1 – In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.

·       Genesis 1:31 – Then God saw everything that He had made, and indeed it was very good. So the evening and the morning were the sixth day.

·       Genesis 3:17-19 – Then to Adam He said, “Because you have heeded the voice of your wife, and have eaten from the tree of which I commanded you, saying, ‘You shall not eat of it’: “Cursed is the ground for your sake; In toil you shall eat of it All the days of your life. Both thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you, And you shall eat the herb of the field. In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread Till you return to the ground, For out of it you were taken; For dust you are, And to dust you shall return.”

·       Romans 5:12 – Therefore, just as through one man sin entered the world, and death through sin, and thus death spread to all men, because all sinned.

·       Romans 3:23 – for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.

·       Romans 6:23 – For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.

·       Romans 10:9 – That if you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus and believe in your heart that God has raised Him from the dead, you will be saved.

·       Romans 5:1 – Therefore, having been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.

Evangelism can occur publicly or privately. Individual methods can be through open preaching, conversation, literature, teaching, or personal testimony. While some believers are especially gifted as evangelists, all Christians are called to witness for Christ in some capacity. Jesus commanded believers:

“And He said to them, ‘Go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature’” (Mark 16:15, NKJV).

Biblical evangelism is not merely emotional persuasion or entertainment. Rather, it is the truthful proclamation of God’s Word about the Gospel relying on the Holy Spirit to convict and save sinners (1 Corinthians 12:3).

Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

Where Did Each Apostle Of Christ Go And Evangelize?

The New Testament records where many Apostles went and did missions work to evangelize. The early church fathers and Christian tradition preserve additional historical details beyond this. Though not every tradition can be verified with certainty, many are widely accepted in early Christian history. In brief, here is where the Apostles ministered[1],

• Peter ministered in Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, Antioch, and eventually Rome where he was crucified upside down. First and Second Peter likely reflect ministry among scattered believers in Asia Minor.
• John ministered primarily in Ephesus and surrounding Asia Minor regions. He later lived on Patmos during exile and banishment where he received the Revelation of Jesus Christ (Revelation 1).
• James the son of Zebedee ministered in Judea and was martyred in Jerusalem by Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:1-2).
• Andrew is traditionally associated with ministry in Scythia, Greece, and regions north of the Black Sea.
• Thomas is connected in church tradition with missions eastward, especially Parthia and India. Ancient Christians in India long claimed Thomas as their founding missionary.
• Matthew is associated with ministry among Jewish communities and possibly Ethiopia or Persia according to various traditions.
• Bartholomew is traditionally connected with Armenia and regions east of the Roman Empire.
• Philip reportedly ministered in Phrygia and Asia Minor.
• Simon the Zealot is associated in tradition with Persia and possibly North Africa.
• Jude (Thaddaeus) is connected with Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia.
• James the son of Alphaeus is traditionally linked with ministry in Jerusalem and surrounding regions.
• Matthias, chosen to replace Judas Iscariot, is associated by tradition with ministry near the Black Sea region and Ethiopia (Cush).
• Paul ministered extensively throughout the eastern Roman Empire including Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, and eventually Rome.

The apostles carried Christianity far beyond Jerusalem within a single generation with reports of the next generation reaching as far as Spain to England and Japan, fulfilling Christ’s command to take the gospel to the nations (consider: Colossians 1:6; 1:23; Romans 1:8, 16:26).

Paul’s Missionary Journeys

The Apostle Paul is often studied specifically for his missionary work. He traveled across the Roman Empire preaching in synagogues of the Jews, marketplaces, homes, and public gathering places. He established churches and later strengthened them through letters and return visits.

Some churches were already established by the time he got there (e.g., Rome), perhaps from those initial people at Pentecost who were from various nations or from the diaspora of the Christians out of Judea (e.g., Acts 8:1-4, 11:19-21).

Many distinguish Paul’s early Arabian mission work and his Syria-Cilicia missionary ministry from the later journeys in Acts. Because of Galatians 1, we know of Paul’s earliest ministry as having more than the traditional three journeys plus the voyage to Rome.

In Galatians 1:15-21, Paul explained that shortly after his conversion he did not immediately go to Jerusalem to learn from the apostles:

“But I went to Arabia, and returned again to Damascus” (Galatians 1:17, NKJV).

The Arabians were descendants of Abraham’s oldest child with Hagar (Ishmael). They would technically be the first of the gentile nations who are of Abraham. After three years, Paul briefly visited Peter and James in Jerusalem and then departed to his homeland and preached there:

“Afterward I went into the regions of Syria and Cilicia” (Galatians 1:21, NKJV).

Paul spent time preparing, preaching, and growing before his later public missionary work recorded in the book of Acts. His ministry really began much earlier than Acts 13.

The ministry in Syria and Cilicia also matters greatly. Cilicia included Paul’s hometown of Tarsus. This likely involved evangelism and church strengthening before Barnabas later brought Paul to Antioch (Acts 11:25-26).

Because of these passages, some Christians outline Paul’s ministry journeys like this:

1. Arabia and Damascus ministry (Galatians 1:17)
2. Syria and Cilicia ministry (Galatians 1:21)
3. First missionary journey (Acts 13-14)
4. Second missionary journey (Acts 15-18)
5. Third missionary journey (Acts 18-21)
6. Voyage to Rome (Acts 27-28)
7. Possible post-Acts ministry after release from imprisonment (e.g., Spain)

Galatians preserves important early missionary activity that occurred before the traditionally numbered missionary journeys in Acts. Many treatments simplify Paul’s travels by beginning with Acts 13, but Galatians reveals that Paul had already been preaching and ministering for years before that formal commissioning from Antioch.

Paul’s missionary activity occupies much of the Book of Acts. His journeys spread Christianity throughout the Roman world.

First Missionary Journey (Acts 13-14)

Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch of Syria. They traveled through Cyprus, Perga, Pisidian, Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. This journey focused heavily on preaching in synagogues and establishing early churches among both Jews and Gentiles.

Second Missionary Journey (Acts 15:36-18:22)

Paul traveled with Silas and later Timothy and Luke. Key regions included Syria and Cilicia then Derbe and Lystra. After this he ventured to Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, and Ephesus. During this journey, the gospel entered deeper into Europe particularly throughout Greece.

Third Missionary Journey (Acts 18:23-21:17)

Paul revisited earlier churches to strengthen believers and spent extensive time in Ephesus. Major locations included Galatia, Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece, Troas, Miletus, Tyre, Caesarea, and Jerusalem. Take note that Paul returned to some familiar places and this time whole regions or nations were mentioned along with certain cities. This journey hit discipleship, correction, and church strengthening.

“Fourth” Journey: Voyage to Rome (Acts 27-28)

Though Paul traveled as a prisoner, this journey still functioned missionally. The route included Caesarea, Sidon, Crete, Malta, Syracuse, Rhegium, Puteoli, and Rome. Even under arrest, Paul continued preaching Christ boldly.

“Fifth” Missionary Journey (Possible Post-Acts Ministry)

Many conservative scholars and traditions hold that Paul was temporarily released after Acts 28 before later imprisonment and martyrdom. Based on the Pastoral Epistles and early church writings, possible destinations included:

• Macedonia
• Crete
• Nicopolis
• Troas
• Miletus
• Possibly Spain

While the New Testament does not directly record this entire journey, from passages in 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus we can ascertain that he continued ministry activity after the close of Acts. Can you see why do many people study Paul’s missionary work?

How Missionaries Prepare And What Do They Often Endure When They Go?

Missionaries often go through rigorous biblical study, theological training, discipleship, language learning, cultural understanding, practical ministry experience, and prayer. Churches commonly examine a missionary’s doctrine, character, spiritual maturity, and calling before sending them out.

The New Testament calls for earnest prayer and one must have dependence on God for missionary work. Paul constantly asked for prayer for boldness, protection, and open doors for the gospel. We should too.

Missionaries also commonly endure hardship. Jesus warned His disciples that following Him would involve suffering. 2 Corinthians 11:24-28 summarizes many of Paul’s sufferings. Paul endured beatings, imprisonment, shipwrecks, hunger, persecution, rejection, false accusations, as well as danger from robbers and hostile authorities.

Paul enduring a shipwreck; Image requested by Bodie Hodge*

Church history likewise records countless missionaries enduring disease, loneliness, poverty, imprisonment, and finally being put to death. Church history also affords that Paul was put to death the same year as Peter being beheaded.

Yet missionaries continue because they believe Christ is worthy to be proclaimed. This “blink of an eye” on earth is nothing compared to eternity. We want to see others saved. Many leave home, family, and good job in order to obey God and reach people with the gospel.

If I can speak personally for a moment, I left family, home, and good job to go into full time ministry and I’ve been attacked in many ways too! So, it does happen but I want to encourage you to continue to strive for Christ because that matters more.  

Conclusion

The doctrine of missiology is predicated on God’s command to proclaim the gospel to the world. Missions and evangelism flow naturally from biblical Christianity because we desire others to know Christ, be saved, and be reconciled to God. From the Apostles to modern missionaries, Christians have traveled across nations, languages, and cultures to preach salvation through Jesus Christ.

The New Testament presents missions not as an optional activity for a few believers, but as a central part of the church’s calling. Whether through local evangelism, supporting missionaries, prayer, teaching, or personal witness, all of us Christians are called to participate in spreading the truth of God’s Word.

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Bodie Hodge, Ken Ham's son in law, has been an apologist defending 6-day creation and opposing evolution since 1998. He spent 21 years working at Answers in Genesis as a speaker, writer, and researcher as well as a founding news anchor for Answers News. He was also head of the Oversight Council.  

Bodie launched Biblical Authority Ministries in 2015 as a personal website and it was organized officially in 2025 as a 501(c)(3). He has spoken on multiple continents and hosts of US states in churches, colleges, and universities. He is married with four children.

Mr. Hodge earned a Bachelor and Master of Science degrees from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (SIUC). Then he taught at SIUC for a couple of years as a Visiting Instructor teaching all levels of undergraduate engineering and running a materials lab and a CAD lab. He did research on advanced ceramic materials to develop a new method of production of titanium diboride with a grant from Lockheed Martin. He worked as a Test Engineer for Caterpillar, Inc., prior to entering full-time ministry.

His love of science was coupled with a love of history, philosophy, and theology. For about one year of his life, Bodie was editing and updating a theological, historical, and scientific dictionary/encyclopedia for AI use and training. Mr. Hodge has over 25 years of experience in writing, speaking and researching in these fields.

*Images generated by ChatGPT 

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[1] For more details on this I suggest the book by William McBirnie called The Search for the Twelve Apostles, by Tyndale Momentum Publishers, 1979, revised in 2008.