Chromosome 2 Fusion?

Chromosome 2 Fusion? 

(Semi-Technical)

Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI

Biblical Authority Ministries, November 21, 2025 (Donate)

Introduction

God created apes on Day 6 and man distinctly different on Day 6. The evolutionary religion doesn’t believe God on this, but have man evolving from great apes. As genetic studies and knowledge grew there was a new problem for the evolutionists.

Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes), while great apes have 48 (24 pairs of chromosomes). This is what we expected if God created man and apes distinctly. But in the evolutionary framework, they needed to figure out how, if humans evolved from the ape-like ancestors, did man arrive at 46?

This is where the evolutionary storytelling begins. Because two ape chromosomes are “somewhat” similar in structure and gene order to human chromosome 2, evolutionists proposed that these two chromosomes fused in a common ancestor. They even renamed these chromosomes in apes (2A and 2B). Thus, the fusion idea was suggested to explain the chromosome number difference while maintaining an evolutionary model of shared ancestry.

Image requested by Bodie Hodge (ChatGPT)

Creationist Researchers Did Their Homework

The idea that human chromosome 2 formed through the fusion of two ancestral ape-like chromosomes has been presented as strong evidence for common ancestry between humans and apes like chimpanzees. However, the claim is not not that good when you look closely at the observable genomic evidence, particularly the alleged telomere–telomere fusion site, the supposed remnant centromere, and the functional genetic features found in the region.

I stand with creationists researchers who maintain that the fusion model relies heavily on evolutionary assumptions and does not correspond well with the structural and biochemical expectations of chromosome biology.

Evolutionists believe that human chromosome 2 formed when two ape-like chromosomes fused end to end about 0.9 million years ago, leaving behind a relic centromere and head-to-head telomeric sequences. This has never been observed to occur nor has it been repeated; thus, it is a belief system based in the religion of evolutionary humanism.

Even so, there are millions of nucleotide differences, multiple gene-order differences, structural rearrangements, regulatory changes, centromere mismatches, and telomere-structure discrepancies between ape chromosomes 2A and 2B and human chromosome 2. Millions of genomic changes in 0.9 million years should throw up red flags even on the evolutionary side.

Evidence Analysis

The evolutionary conclusion is premature, poorly supported, and inconsistent with what is actually found in the genome. Our objections generally fall under several main problems: (1) the telomere issue, (2) the centromere issue, (3) functional DNA problems, and (4) assumptions built into evolutionary reasoning.

Telomeres

A telomere is a protective DNA sequence made of repeated patterns located at the ends of chromosomes to prevent damage during cell division.

A primary, and devastating, problem for the fusion conjecture concerns the telomeric sequences located at the proposed fusion site. A genuine end-to-end fusion of two chromosomes should contain a large block of intact telomeric repeats in a head-to-head orientation.

Instead, the region contains only a small, highly degenerated cluster of repeats that is far shorter and more disorganized than expected. These repeats are fragmented, mutated, and embedded within sequences not characteristic of functional or structural telomeres. Thus, the evolutionary prediction failed. This level of degradation is not consistent with a historic fusion event.

Centromere

A centromere is the central region of a chromosome where sister chromatids (one side of a chromosome) are held together and where spindle fibers attach during cell division.

During an alleged fusion event, there should be two centromeres from two different previous chromosomes. Human chromosome 2 doesn’t have that. So, evolutionists look and try to interpret particular regions to be a remnant or vestigial secondary centromere.

And of course, this alleged secondary centromere provides a second major point of contention. Evolutionists assert that human chromosome 2 retains a primary functional centromere and a second, vestigial centromere from one of the chromosomes that supposedly fused.

The problem is that this alleged vestigial centromere bears little resemblance to a true centromere, lacking:

·        the characteristic alpha satellite structure

·        epigenetic markers

·        specific sequence organization required for centromeric activity

What this means is that it isn’t a remnant centromere at all. The region displays only sparse repetitive content that does not match with the structure of known centromeres, refuting its identification as a functional remnant of a prior chromosomal structure.

Making matters worse, is that the evidence is not simply a genomic scar with useless information but contains functional DNA. Portions of the alleged fusion site overlap with regulatory regions and other genetic features that appear to play active roles in gene expression. In other words, it is not useless nor vestigial but proper working and fully functional genes!

From a design-based perspective, the presence of such function indicates that the region was never a meaningless leftover from a fusion event but an important and useful part of the original human genome architecture.

A Fusion Should Have Been Eliminated And Not Passed Along

In addition to sequence-based concerns, there is a huge biological challenge. This challenge has to do with fixing a broken chromosomal fusion event and then have it spread throughout a population. This is pure arbitrary storytelling.  

Chromosomal fusions often cause massive reproductive problems, like reduced fertility, due to mismatched chromosome pairing during meiosis. For a fused chromosome to spread throughout an ancestral population, multiple individuals, via dumb luck, would have needed to inherit and reproduce successfully with the same rare mutation. This scenario is just outrageous and speculative storytelling.

Evolutionary Framework Assumptions

The interpretive framework surrounding an alleged chromosome 2 fusion is influenced by a commitment to the evolutionary religion. Similarities between human and ape chromosomes are treated as evidence of ancestry rather than potentially reflecting common design.

Common design is rather a confirmation of a common designer, not ancestry. God, of course, being the Designer in this instance which is what we expect when we start with God’s Word as authoritative.  

Conclusion

When discrepancies arise—such as the degraded telomeric sequences or the lack of a recognizable secondary centromere—evolutionary decay is invoked as the explanation. This approach puts the arbitrary evolutionary assumptions into both the interpretation and the justification.

The chromosome 2 fusion argument does not withstand careful scrutiny. The fusion site lacks the intact telomeric signatures expected from a true chromosomal fusion, the supposed vestigial centromere fails to match the structural and epigenetic requirements of a centromere, the region contains functional DNA inconsistent with being a mutation-derived remnant, and the population-level feasibility of fixing such a fusion event remains questionable. These combined issues are a huge problem for the evolutionary camp.  Human chromosome 2 is best understood not as a product of ancient fusion but as a uniquely designed component of the human genome.

Recommended Reading:

·        Jeffrey P. Tomkins, October 16, 2013; Answers Research Journal 6 (2013): 367–375. https://answersresearchjournal.org/alleged-human-chromosome-2-fusion-site/.

·        John Sanford, Genetic Entropy and the Mystery of the Genome, FMS Publications, 2014.

·        Avery Foley Unraveling the Chromosome 2 Connection, March 21, 2021, Answers Magazine, https://answersingenesis.org/genetics/unraveling-chromosome-2-connection/.

·        Jean Lightner, Chromosome Tales and the Importance of a Biblical Worldview, Answers in Depth, June 18, 2014, https://answersingenesis.org/genetics/dna-similarities/chromosome-tales-and-importance-biblical-worldview/.

·        Ken Ham and Bodie Hodge, Glass House, Master Books, Green Forest, AR, 2019.

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Bodie Hodge, Ken Ham's son in law, has been an apologist since 1998 helping out in various churches and running an apologetics website. He spent 21 years working at Answers in Genesis as a speaker, writer, and researcher as well as a founding news anchor for Answers News. He was also head of the Oversight Council.  

Bodie launched Biblical Authority Ministries in 2015 as a personal website and it was organized officially in 2025 as a 501(c)(3). He has spoken on multiple continents and hosts of US states in churches, colleges, and universities. He is married with four children. 

 

Common Abortion Excuses Refuted

Common Abortion Excuses Refuted

Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc. PEI

Biblical Authority Ministries, July 3, 2020 (Donate) 

Sadly, abortion is a commonplace in the Western World. Excuses to make light of one abound.

Abortion is murder—I’m up front about that—there is no sugar coating it. Excuses for murder are when people try to justify evil behavior and actions. Murder is evil and abortion is evil. Yes, that is bold, but people need to hear the truth.

God commands in Exodus 20:13,  "You shall not murder” (NKJV). If someone tries to say otherwise, they are lying, whether knowingly or unknowingly. God also says in Leviticus 19:11,  “You shall not steal, nor deal falsely, nor lie to one another” (NKJV). By what authority can someone object to God’s absolute authority in His absolute Word? It would only be via a lesser authority which is a faulty appeal to authority fallacy—i.e., an arbitrary authority.

My third child!

Many unwanted pregnancies would not be an issue if people would have listened to another of God’s commands in 1 Thessalonians 4:3, “ For this is the will of God, your sanctification: that you should abstain from sexual immorality” (NKJV). Nevertheless, Psalm 127:3-5 reminds us of the blessing of children, “Behold, children are a heritage from the LORD, The fruit of the womb is a reward. Like arrows in the hand of a warrior, So are the children of one’s youth. Happy is the man who has his quiver full of them; They shall not be ashamed, But shall speak with their enemies in the gate” (NKJV).

The demotion of children and their value  in our culture and the elevation of sinful actions like sexual immorality, lying, and murder have created a terrible situation in our society. The response of many Christians is to give in to sinful behavior like abortion; or if they do oppose it, it is often via shallow, feelings-based answers—there are exceptions, of course. 

I wanted to do something different with short, logical, biblical, and snappy answers that are bullet-pointed below to cut to the heart of common abortion excuses. I want to give a bold response, but at the same time I want readers to realize these are still said with sincerity and kindness—even though they are bold, direct, and to the point.

Abortion pills at a local grocery shop; Photo by Bodie Hodge

After all, it could save someone’s life and even help a parent—maybe you—to realize the need to repent of evil behavior and turn to the blood of Jesus Christ, who paid the penalty for our sin on the cross through His death, burial, and resurrection.

Common Excuses and a Brief Response

·         “I already have some children and we simply can’t have more.”

o   Yes you can. Gideon had 70 sons that were his own offspring (Judges 8:30). Beat that! How will your other children feel when they find out that you murdered one of their brothers or sisters? Personally, I would never feel safe around my parent(s) if I found out they willingly killed one of my siblings.

·         “I’m not ready to have a baby right now!”

o   Too late, you already have a baby right now. Own up to the responsibility and take care of him/her—the child is already counting on you. Furthermore, it’s too late to use this excuse. If having “a baby right now” was a such a big deal, then why were you performing the act that makes babies?  

·         “I need to do other things in my life before having children!”

o   This is an either-or fallacy (bifurcation). You can do all sorts of things with your life with a child—education, travel, etc. Perhaps you’ve been misinformed to this fact. Furthermore, if these other things were your goal, then why were you attempting to have a baby. Regardless, you are already with child now so it’s too late to use this excuse. It’s time to get over that type of selfish behavior and take care of your child.

·         “I’m not ready to be a good mother right now.”

o   Then step it up and become a good mother. Keep in mind that you are already a mother at this point. Nourishing and caring for your baby is being a good mother. Be honest with yourself, killing your baby would make you a terrible, evil mother—but you’ll forever be a mother nonetheless. Perhaps you should have thought of this prior to doing the act of making a baby.

·         “I don’t want to have a child with this baby’s father.”

o   Too late—you already have a child with this baby’s father; you should have thought of that prior to doing the act that makes a baby with your baby’s father. Nevertheless, this is no excuse to kill someone else—i.e., the baby.  

·         “This child wasn’t my choice.”

o   Your parents weren’t your choice either—that doesn’t justify murdering them. But it was your choice to have sex with the father though since you engaged in the activity to make a baby.

·         “This child is the result of rape.”

o   First, these claims need to be proved in accordance with the Law in court. According to Deuteronomy, did you cry out for help (per Deuteronomy 22:23:-27)? Were you in a city (people within screaming distance) to get witnesses and help to prevent said rape; or were you isolated in the countryside (no people within screaming distance) when this happened? Depending on your response, there were two different things that could happen. I’ll assume for the moment that it really was rape…which brings me to the second point…

o   What crime did the child do that deserved capital punishment (i.e., death)? Even if the father did something wrong, does that mean that you or the child should be held accountable for it? Should you go to jail for his rape for instance? Did the child murder someone, rape someone, have sex with an animal, etc.? No. Then why condemn your child to death for the sin of the father? God says, in Ezekiel 18:20  "The soul who sins shall die. The son shall not bear the guilt of the father, nor the father bear the guilt of the son. The righteousness of the righteous shall be upon himself, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon himself” (NKJV).

·         “A pregnancy will be dangerous for my personal health.”

o   You don’t know that and this borderlines on false prophecy. With the finest healthcare today, that shouldn’t be a problem anyway. Besides, if you put yourself before the child what does say about you? God says in Philippians 2:3-4, “Do nothing from selfishness or empty conceit, but with humility of mind regard one another as more important than yourselves; do not merely look out for your own personal interests, but also for the interests of others” (NASB). I humbly suggest that you conquer this self-conceit and put others first…namely your child. Furthermore, if pregnancy was such a dangerous thing, then why risk engaging in sex, which is how you get pregnant?  

·         “This child was given a terminal diagnosis or will be born disabled.”

o   Everyone has disabilities and a terminal diagnosis. Even you. You are going to die and not live to 900 years old for instance like Adam, Methuselah, Noah, and several others. We are all degenerate mutants since sin and the curse in Genesis 3, when we were given a taste of what life is like without God upholding things in a perfect state (e.g., Genesis 1:31, Deuteronomy 32:4). A lot of people say this as an excuse to abort. But it is irrelevant. The child did nothing to deserve capital punishment any more than you deserve it.

o   Keep in mind where this argument leads (reductio ad absurdum). If you got in a car wreck and lost your leg—you would be disabled.  Does this mean other people can put you to death because you are disabled? That is where this argument leads. Instead, we should take care of those who are less fortunate, not destroy them.    

·         “I can’t have a child! What will people think about me?”

o   Most people will think you are a murderer if you murder your baby—even if they don’t say it to your face, they will often think it. You may be able to hide it for a while, but it will come out on Judgment Day when you answer for it. If you are okay with murder—which it is sounds like—then why would you care about anything that respectable people will think when you keep your child? Contrary to what you’ve been led to believe, most people will think highly of you for protecting and caring for your child like a good mother.

·         “Everyone’s telling me a termination is the right choice for me.”

o   Not everyone—that is a straw man fallacy. I’m not for instance and hosts of pro-life people would join me in telling you that you should keep your child. Also, God disagrees with those pushing you to murder your child. Do you really think people supporting murder should be the role models you should listen to? There are plenty of people encouraging you to care for your baby or at the very least, put the child up for adoption—stop ignoring the people who care and stop listening to the people who are leading you down a path of evil and murder. God says in Proverbs 4:14 , “Do not enter the path of the wicked, And do not walk in the way of evil” (NKJV).

·         “There’s nothing wrong with an abortion. It’s just my preference for what is right for me.”

o   God defines right and wrong, not you. Be careful of promoting this idea that a person can come up with their own concepts of right and wrong. Otherwise, you are unwittingly agreeing that a rapist can rape you, a murderer can murder you, a torturer can torture you, a thief can steal from you, a liar can lie to you, a cheater can cheat on you, etc. because these sinners are okay with saying that what they do is right in their own eyes too. God already established that it is not right to murder someone—including your own child.

·         “I’m a Christian, but I’ve been told the Bible agrees that it’s okay for me to have an abortion.”

o   This is a crackers in the pantry fallacy. It’s among the easiest fallacies to solve and get to a solution. The answer—look it up in the Bible and see. Read the passages where God supposedly supports murder, and you’ll find the opposite is true. The point is not to trust what people say is in the Bible, but look and see what God actually says. Again, God says in Exodus 20:13,  "You shall not murder” (NKJV), among other passages (e.g., Numbers 35:16-19, Deuteronomy 5:17), etc.).

·         “It’s just a bunch of tissue, so why not get an abortion”

o   By this standard, you are a clump of tissues too! Is it okay for someone apart from you to make the choice to murder you too then? The fact is that you and the baby are more than a clump of cells. The baby, like you, is a unique growing human being made in the image of God which gives him/her a value over plants, trees, rocks, and animals. And if you kill your child, it will be murder. And you will have to answer for that murder before God on Judgment Day. So this argument is irrelevant.

·         “It is my body—I can do what I want with it!”

o   No, it’s not your body. Your child is no more part of you than you are part of your mother’s body. If you are making this argument, then per reductio ad absurdum,  you and the baby are technically your mother’s body too (i.e., grandmother, great grandmother, etc.). This is a false premise fallacy. Your child’s DNA is unique from yours. If the child is your body, then the father should never have any responsibility of the child whatsoever either (this would reduce any liability for a father to be held for child support and a rapist would be immune from any responsibility for a child either). The facts is that your body and the baby’s body comes from God and He owns all things. The life Adam and Eve received from God has been passed down from every generation to you and your child. And you will have to give an account for how you used your body and how you cared for your child that God entrusted you with on Judgment Day. 

o   Secondly, when you claim “it’s my body”, this is a property argument—assuming you can do whatever you want just because  you “own” it. This is the same argument used to promote slavery or in our modern vernacular human trafficking. The people enslaved are seen as property that you can do whatever you want with them—rape them, beat them, work them to death, or murder them all in the name of ownership. No, the child is not your body but a unique individual, whom you chose to make with the help of the father by doing the act of making a child.  

 

I know these are hard-hitting responses but it was designed to make people think. Very few people are willing to state things as they are and they tend to let emotion cloud their judgment. Many times, we just sugar coat the truth. I wanted to do something different here.

I also understand that people have gone through the killing of their child and often feel very bad about it afterward—and rightly so. Jesus Christ offers forgiveness when you turn from your sin (repentance) and confess it to Christ.

Jesus took the punishment we deserve for our sin on the cross. He took the infinite punishment from the infinite Father that we should rightly receive for our sin. Jesus’s sacrifice satisfied God’s wrath upon our sin so we can be forgiven and receive the free gift of eternal life because Jesus’s righteousness is transferred to us (imputed to us). On Judgment Day, God sees us as spotless like Christ because of Christ’s perfection.

And he brought them out and said, "Sirs, what must I do to be saved?" So they said, "Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and you will be saved, you and your household" (Acts 16:30-31, NKJV).