A Doctrinal Battle: Calvinism Vs Baxterianism Vs. Arminianism (Remonstrance)

A Doctrinal Battle: Calvinism Vs Baxterianism Vs. Arminianism (Remonstrance)

Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI

Biblical Authority Ministries, March 4, 2026 (Donate)

Introduction

John Calvin and Jacob Arminius (and their followers) agree with one another about a great many things. For instance, John Calvin and Jacob Arminius agreed that the age of the earth was about 6000 years ago (by today’s reckoning).

But…there were five things they disagreed on. And it split churches all over Europe. Throughout the Western World, churches still battle over these five points.

There is a large fracture in protestant churches around the world. And yet, it was just a “handful” of doctrinal positions that have literally caused churches to split. This brings me to the gigantic battle over Calvinism and Arminianism (and their daughter Baxterianism).

That battle still rages today and often times consumes the internet. Some churches are dogmatically Calvinistic or dogmatically Arminian and usually they very well-versed in Scripture to tackle this debate. Then, every once in a while, you’ll find a church, theologian, or layman that affectionally call themselves “Calminians” by putting the two names—Calvinism and Arminianism together—they are stuck in between! Interestingly, I’ve been in churches that hold to each of these various beliefs.

A reimagined Council of Dort where much of this debate too place; Image requested by Bodie Hodge (ChatGPT)

Now before I go any further, and after studying this for many years, I lean strongly in one direction. But for the sake of education, I’m going to try to avoid letting my personal beliefs through in this discussion.

My goal is to define the positions accurately, give the history to this debate, and then give the talking points. From this foundational information, you should be able to understand the basics of this debate and build on it.

From here, I want to encourage you to speak with your local pastor, elders, and family to go to that next step of what your church and family believes and why biblically. So, consider this like an introduction and laying the reformational foundation to the doctrinal battle, but not the final word on it.

The History Of The Debate

After the Reformation was in full swing, the debate between the Remonstrance (Arminians) and Calvinists arose within the Dutch Reformed Church. The controversy began after the teachings of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609), who questioned certain interpretations of predestination commonly held in Reformed theology—Reformed theology is what the Reformed Puritans held to as they studied Scripture after the Protestant slit with Rome.

Baptists, Reformed, and Presbyterians all came out of the Puritan line. Arminius did not reject grace or the necessity of faith, but he argued that God’s election was based on God’s foreknowledge of those who would believe and that Christ died for all people.

After Arminius died, his followers summarized his views in a document presented to the States of Holland in 1610 called the Remonstrance. Though some suggest that Arminius wouldn’t have held to all of these points but perhaps 3-4 of them—this is why many Arminians of that day preferred to be called Remonstrance instead of Arminians. But the name Arminians stuck.

Nevertheless, this document listed five theological points:

·       Conditional election

·       Universal atonement

·       Human depravity requiring grace

·       Resistible grace

·       The possibility that believers could fall from salvation

Because they protested the prevailing teaching, these supporters became known as the Remonstrance. It comes from the word remonstrance which literally means earnest reasons for opposing or grievance.

Opponents of the Remonstrance believed these teachings weakened the Reformation doctrines of grace and were not biblically sound. To address the controversy, the Dutch government called the Synod of Dort, which met from 1618 to 1619. Delegates from several Reformed churches across Europe participated. The synod rejected the five points of the Remonstrance and produced what became known as the Canons of Dort.

These canons affirmed doctrines that later were summarized with the acronym TULIP:

·       Total depravity

·       Unconditional election

·       Limited atonement

·       Irresistible grace

·       Perseverance of the saints

Although the acronym came later (first letter of each of these, bolded), it reflects the theological conclusions reached at Dort in response to the Remonstrant challenge.

What Is The Arminian Position (In Brief)?

Arminianism is a theological system based primarily on the teachings of Jacobus Arminius and later developed by his followers—more-so his followers. Arminian theology teaches that God genuinely desires the salvation of all people and that Christ died for the sins of the entire world.

Jacob Arminius; Public Domain

Arminianism, as a theology, agrees that humanity is deeply affected by sin, but it teaches that God grants prevenient grace to all people. This prevenient grace restores the ability to respond to the gospel. As a result, individuals can either accept or resist God’s call to salvation.

In this system, election is conditional rather than unconditional. God chooses those whom He foreknows will believe in Christ. Salvation therefore depends on a genuine human response to God’s grace. Faith is not viewed as something irresistibly produced by God but as a response that individuals can freely give or reject.

Arminian theologians also generally teaches that believers must continue in faith. Some Arminians hold that true believers can fall away from salvation if they abandon faith in Christ (i.e., lose their salvation).

Arminianism differs from Calvinism by affirming conditional election, universal atonement, resistible grace, and the possibility of falling from grace. It differs from Baxterianism because it does not redefine justification as part of a covenant law of grace (more on this in a moment). Instead, it typically maintains justification by faith but that faith is a free human response made possible by prevenient grace.

In pointed form, Arminians believe (Articles of Remonstrance):

The Five Points of the Arminian Remonstrance (1610)

• Conditional Election
  God chooses individuals for salvation based on His foreknowledge of who will believe in Jesus Christ. Election is therefore conditioned on faith rather than being an unconditional decree.
• Universal Atonement
  Jesus Christ died for all people and made salvation possible for everyone. His atoning sacrifice is sufficient for all, but it is only effective for those who believe.
• Human Depravity with Prevenient Grace
  Humanity is fallen and cannot save itself, but God grants prevenient grace to all people. This grace restores the ability to respond freely to the gospel.
• Resistible Grace
  The grace of God that calls people to salvation can be resisted. Individuals have the ability to reject the work of the Holy Spirit and refuse salvation.
• Possibility of Falling from Grace
  True believers must continue in faith. Some Arminians teach that a genuine believer can fall away from salvation if they abandon their faith in Christ.

What Is The Calvinist Position (In Brief)?

In short, Calvinism is a theological system that teaches the sovereignty of God—even in salvation. It goes back to the teachings of John Calvin (AD 1509-1564) and later summarized in the Reformed confessions; it teaches that fallen humanity is completely unable to save itself because sin has corrupted every aspect of human nature.

John Calvin; Public Domain

This condition is often described as total depravity. Because humans cannot initiate salvation, God sovereignly chooses certain individuals to be saved. This is known as unconditional election.

According to Calvinism, Christ’s atoning death was intended specifically and effectively for those whom God has chosen, often called the elect. This doctrine is commonly referred to as “particular” redemption (or limited atonement). Some you may have heard of this term in the name of churches—for instance there are Particular Baptists and General Baptists. Particular Baptists are the Calvinistic Baptists and the General Baptists are the Arminian Baptists.

The Holy Spirit then applies Christ’s work to the elect through irresistible grace, meaning that when God calls someone to salvation, that call ultimately brings them to faith. Those whom God saves will continue in faith until the end, a doctrine known as perseverance of the saints (e.g., once saved, always saved).

Calvinism holds that salvation is entirely by God’s grace—from beginning to end. Faith itself is seen as a gift granted by God rather than a human contribution to salvation. Human responsibility still exists, but the decisive cause of salvation lies entirely in God’s sovereign will rather than human choice.

In bulleted form, here is what Calvinists believe:

The Five Points of Calvinism (TULIP)

• Total Depravity
  Because of the Fall, every part of human nature is corrupted by sin. People are spiritually dead and unable to come to God for salvation apart from divine grace.
• Unconditional Election
  God chose certain individuals for salvation before the foundation of the world, not based on foreseen faith or merit but solely according to His sovereign will.
• Limited Atonement (Particular Redemption)
  Christ’s atoning death was specifically intended to save the elect. His sacrifice effectively secured salvation for those whom God chose.
• Irresistible Grace
  When God calls the elect to salvation through the Holy Spirit, that call effectively brings them to faith. God’s saving grace ultimately cannot be resisted by those He intends to save.
• Perseverance of the Saints
  Those whom God truly saves will continue in faith until the end. Believers are preserved by God’s power and will not ultimately fall away from salvation.

So What Is Baxterianism?

Baxterianism, is basically a form of what modern people call “Calminianism”—though today, there are indeed more variations of it. Baxterianism is the classical form of it.

It is associated with the English Puritan theologian Richard Baxter (AD 1615-1691). Baxter sought a middle position between strict Calvinism and Arminianism, attempting to preserve God’s sovereignty while still retaining human responsibility in the process of salvation. So naturally, Baxterian theology tries to mediate a course between strict Calvinism and Arminianism.

Richard Baxter; Public Domain

Baxter taught that Christ’s death was made for all people and made salvation possible for everyone, but it only becomes effective for those who believe. In this sense, he affirmed a universal provision of the atonement.

However, he also suggested that the new covenant contains conditions that humans must meet, especially faith and sincere obedience. In Baxter’s view, justification is not granted solely on the basis of Christ’s righteousness imputed to believers.

Instead, he taught that God established a new covenant law of grace in which faith and evangelical obedience are accepted by God as the condition for justification. While salvation still depends on grace, human responsibility plays a significant role in meeting the covenant conditions.

Because of this emphasis, Baxterian theology has sometimes been described as neonomianism, meaning a “new law.” Critics, especially within the Reformed tradition, argued that this framework weakened the doctrine of justification by faith alone by making human obedience part of the ground or condition of justification.

Baxterianism differs from Calvinism by rejecting limited atonement and by redefining justification as dependent on covenant conditions rather than solely on Christ’s imputed righteousness. It differs from Arminianism because Baxter still affirmed a stronger role for divine grace and did not fully adopt the Arminian concept of Arminian style free will.

Baxter agreed with parts of both systems but also rejected elements of each. His view is also sometimes called Amyraldian, moderate Calvinist, or neonomian by critics. Below is how Baxterians typically relate to the five areas debated between Calvinists and Arminians.

·       Depravity—Baxterians affirmed that humanity is deeply fallen and unable to save itself apart from God's grace. They generally rejected the idea that humans possess natural ability to believe without divine help. However, they tended to speak less in terms of absolute inability and more in terms of moral corruption that requires grace for restoration. In this sense they stood closer to Calvinists than to Arminians, though often with softer language about human incapacity.

·       Election—Baxterians rejected strict unconditional election as taught in Calvinism. At the same time, they did not fully embrace the Arminian idea that election is purely based on foreseen faith. Baxter often described election as connected with God's gracious covenant, in which God decrees to save those who believe in Christ under the terms of the gospel. Thus, election is tied to the covenant conditions of faith and repentance rather than (1) an unconditional decree or (2) mere foreknowledge.

·       Atonement—Baxterians held that Christ died for all people in some sense. The death of Christ provided a universal basis for offering salvation to the whole world. However, the benefits of Christ's atonement are only applied to those who believe (i.e., the elect). This position differs from strict Calvinism's limited atonement but also avoids the Arminian claim that Christ equally intended to save every individual.

·       Grace—Baxterians believed that grace is necessary for salvation and that God must enable sinners to believe. However, they rejected the Calvinist doctrine of irresistible grace. People can resist the gospel call and fail to meet the conditions of the new covenant. In this respect Baxterians were closer to Arminian thought, though they often point out that God’s grace still precedes and enables human response.

·       Perseverance—Baxterians typically rejected the strict Calvinist doctrine of the absolute perseverance of the saints. They taught that believers must continue in faith and sincere obedience under the new covenant. A person who abandons faith may fall from salvation. This view resembles the Arminian position, though Baxter framed perseverance in terms of continuing within the covenant conditions.

As you can tell, Baxterian theology attempted to moderate the extremes of both Calvinism and Arminianism. It retained strong views on God’s sovereign grace and human sinfulness from the Reformed tradition while siding with a universal provision of the atonement and conditional aspects of salvation similar to Arminianism. The key distinctive is Baxter's concept of the "new covenant law of grace," where faith and sincere obedience function as the conditions under which God grants justification and salvation.

Conclusion

As most people know, when I discuss topics like doctrines, I use immense numbers of Scriptural references. I intentionally did not do that this time—not that the Bible is not of importance here—it is of utmost importance.

But I did this because so many Bible verses are the focal point of debate on this subject. If I inserted them, I would have to discuss the various interpretations of these verses contextually while dealing with the debate points in the different camps. If I did, this article would be the length of a book itself!

Furthermore, as I mentioned before, my goal was to hit the history of the debate, the basic debate points, and define the positions. It wasn’t to give you the biblical data. But my hope is that you will dive into the biblical debate over the verses with your local church and family for these positions.

I encourage you study them in their biblical context and grow and develop your understanding of the debate points in the Calvinism vs Arminian debate (and Baxterianism). I want you to know what you believe on the subject from a biblical perspective. And I want you to search the Scriptures diligently like the Bereans and I’ll leave you with this one verse:

Then the brethren immediately sent Paul and Silas away by night to Berea. When they arrived, they went into the synagogue of the Jews. These were more fair-minded than those in Thessalonica, in that they received the word with all readiness, and searched the Scriptures daily to find out whether these things were so. (Acts 17:10-11, NKJV)

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Bodie Hodge, Ken Ham's son in law, has been an apologist since 1998 helping out in various churches and running an apologetics website. He spent 21 years working at Answers in Genesis as a speaker, writer, and researcher as well as a founding news anchor for Answers News. He was also head of the Oversight Council.  

Bodie launched Biblical Authority Ministries in 2015 as a personal website and it was organized officially in 2025 as a 501(c)(3). He has spoken on multiple continents and hosts of US states in churches, colleges, and universities. He is married with four children.

Mr. Hodge earned a Bachelor and Master of Science degrees from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (SIUC). Then he taught at SIUC for a couple of years as a Visiting Instructor teaching all levels of undergraduate engineering and running a materials lab and a CAD lab. He did research on advanced ceramic materials to develop a new method of production of titanium diboride with a grant from Lockheed Martin. He worked as a Test Engineer for Caterpillar, Inc., prior to entering full-time ministry.

His love of science was coupled with a love of history, philosophy, and theology. For about one year of his life, Bodie was editing and updating a theological, historical, and scientific dictionary/encyclopedia for AI use and training. Mr. Hodge has over 25 years of experience in writing, speaking and researching in these fields.